Pre-Kushana Ayagapatta from Mathura Jainism (pronounced in English as /ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩/), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.
Jainism has significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vrata) is the means by which Jains attain moksha, Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul’s true nature.
A lay Jain is termed a shravak (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and lay women.
Overview of Jain Dharma
Jain philosophy is considered a compilation of eternal, universal truths. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached enlightenment or total knowledge (Keval Gnan). Traditionally,in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabh (ऋषभ or रिषभ) is regarded as the first to realize those truths followed by Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavir (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).
Jainism teaches that every living thing is an individual with an eternal soul, jīva, and responsible for its actions. This teaches the individual to live, think and act with respect and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Anant Jnän, Anant Darshan, Anant Chäritra, and Anant Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws, the interplay of the attributes (gunas) of matter (dravyas) that make it up.
The primary figures of Jainism are Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions: Digambar and Shvetambar. Both believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsar, and jiva. Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited scripture is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by Umasvati (or Umasvami),the monk-scholar, more than 18 centuries ago.
Compassion for all living beings, along with humans, is central to Jainism. It is the only religion that requires both monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. In regions of India with a strong Jain influence, often the majority of the local non Jain population is also vegetarian. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters, e.g. a bird hospital in Delhi is run by a Jain temple. Historians believe that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to a strong Jainism and Buddhism influence.
Jain layman worshipping at the temple at Rankapur. Jain cleaning the temple at Ranakpur. When we speak or open our mouths, sometimes spittle sprays out. The mask over his face is to prevent spit droplets from landing on holy images or books. .Jainism’s stance on nonviolence, goes simply beyond vegetarianism. The orthodox Jain diet excludes most root vegetables, as they believe such vegetables have infinite individual souls, invisible to our eyes. Another reason for not eating roots is to avoid killing the plant. Jains will not eat food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan, due to the violence of modern dairy farms. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and always rise before sunrise.
Anekantavad is a foundation pillar of Jain philosophy. Literally meaning “Non-one-endedness” or “Nonsingular Conclusions”, Anekantavad consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on a topic, object, process, state, or on reality in general. One tool is The Doctrine of Postulation, Syādvāda. Anekantavad is defined as a multiplicity of views for it stresses looking at things from another’s perspective.
Jains are remarkably welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and often help with multi-religious functions. Jain monks, like the late Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar, actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension.
Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and to Mohandas Gandhi’s politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence.
Universal History and Jain Cosmology
According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each upward or downward cycle is divided into six eons (yugas). The present era, a downward movement, is the fifth of these cycles. These ages are known as “Aaro” as “Pehela Aara” or First Age, “Doosra Aara” or Second Age and so on. The last is the “Chhatha Aara” or Sixth Age. These ages have well defined durations of thousands of years.
When this cycle reaches its lowest level, even Jainism will be lost in its entirety. Then, on the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders,Tirthankars (literally “Crossing Makers” or “Ford Finders”), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.
In each enormously long cycle of time, there are always twenty-four Tirthankars. In our era, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavir in 527 BC. Jains regard him, and all Tirthankars, as reformers who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is based. The title Bhagavan (”Lord”) applied to Mahavir and all other Tirthankars means Venerable.
Bhaktamara Stotra: Tirthankara is shelter from ocean of rebirths.
The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of our age is called, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). A wandering ascetic teacher, he recalled Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.
Jains believe that reality consists of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of infinite identical spiritual units; while ajiva (non-jiva) is matter in all forms and conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement.
Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, etc.
Any contact whatsoever of jiva with ajiva causes the former to suffer and Jains understand that worldly existence inevitably means some suffering. Neither social nor individual reform can totally stop suffering. In every human, there is jiva, and this jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. To avoid suffering, the jiva must leave the four gatis (stages) of Human Life, Heavenly Bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish Life, and Hell, by never forgetting the ultimate aim and by practising Jainism continuously and thus attain liberation,
Karma and transmigration keep jiva locked in ajiva. Liberation from the human condition is difficult. Jiva continues to suffer during all its infinite reincarnations. They believe that every action, good or evil, opens up sense channels (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which invisible karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of its next reincarnation.
The consequence of evil actions is heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower existential level. Good deeds, on the other hand, lead to light karma, allowing jiva to rise to a higher level in its next life, where there is less suffering. However, good deeds alone can never lead to liberation.
The fylfot (a.k.a. swastik) is one of the holiest Jain symbols. Worshippers often use rice grains to create fylfot symbols around the temple altar.The way to moksh (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma keeps the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which it suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus liberation means release from karma, its annihilation and avoidance of new karma.
Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it, jiva will rise free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the highest state in the universe,Siddhashila, where jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, aloneness and liberation. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from worldly involvement as much as possible, and close sense channels and the mind to prevent karma. Such eternal liberation by freeing Jiva from Pudgala (ajiva), so no new reincarnation occurs, is Moksh. Ignorance (ajñāna) causes attachment, while true knowledge (keval jñāna)leads to liberation.
S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology thus:
“In Jain tradition, the first teacher, Rishabh, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had appeared, a teacher/Tirthankara was needed to help people cope with life. In the fourth period, evil proliferated so much that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve moksh. The present time, part of the fifth period, is ‘wholly evil.’ Now, men live less than 125 years, and the sixth epoch will be even worse. ‘A man’s life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to that of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the upward cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man’s needs will be fulfilled by wish fullfilling trees, his height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.’ However, eventually things will degenerate, with Avasarpini followed by Usarpini in a neverending cycle.” (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)
Beliefs and practices
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahinsa, meaning non-violence. The word in the middle of the wheel reads “ahimsa.” The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.There are monks who practice strict asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there is the laity, who pursue 
less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible in this lifetime. Due to strict Jain ethics, the laity choose professions and livelihoods that protect life and do not involve any violence to living beings.
Jains consider that devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation. This must be achieved by individuals through their own effort. In fact, devas cannot achieve their own liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult action of removing karma. Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them. Their effort to attain the highest, the most exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.
The Jain ethical code is taken very seriously. These Five Vows are followed by both laity and monks/nuns. These are:
Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa)
Truth (satya)
Non-stealing (asteya)
Chastity (brahma-charya)
Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)
For lay people, ‘chastity’ means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being vegetarian and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in all thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards humans, but towards all living creatures. While performing holy deeds, Jains wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid spittle falling on texts or deities.
Along with these Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring harmful feelings towards others and practise forgiveness. They believe that Atma can lead one to become Parmatma and this has to come from one’s inner-self; no one can lead another on any path but can only show the way to the path. Jains know that anger towards another is one’s biggest enemy, they believe in “Jeeyo aur jeene do” (live and let others live).
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by this Jain emphasis on peaceful, protective living and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.
Jain symbols
Jains have few core symbols. One symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastik.
Major Jain symbols include:
24 Lanchhanas for Tirthankaras.
The Ashta-mangalas.
Om.
Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols.
A Tirthankar’s mother dreams.
Dharma-chakra and Siddha-chakra.
Jain fasting
Fasting is very common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains will fast at special times during the year, at festivals and holy days. However, a Jain may take it upon him or herself to fast at anytime. The monsoon period (in India) is a time of fasting.
The aim of fasting
Fasts may be done as penance, especially for monks and nuns. Fasting purifies the body and the mind, reminding one of Mahavir’s emphasis on renunciation and asceticism. Mahavira spent a lot of time fasting. It is not sufficient for a Jain simply to stop eating when fasting, they must also stop wanting to eat. If they continue to desire food, the fast is pointless.
Types of fast
There are several types of fasting:
Complete fasting: giving up food and water completely for a period.
Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger.
Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten.
Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods.
Great fasts: Some monks fast for months at a time, following Mahavir, who fasted for over 6 months.
Different types of fast
Choviharo Upavasa - To give up food and water for the whole day.
Upavas - To give up only food for the whole day.
Digamber Upvas - One can only drink water once a day,before sunset.
Shwetamber Upvas - One may drink many glasses of water,however this must be done before sunset.
Ekasan - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as desired between sunrise and sunset.
Beasan - To eat two meals a day, (one meal per sitting) and to drink water as desired any times between sunrise and sunset.
Ayambil: Eating food once in one sitting. The food is spice free and boiled or cooked. Also, no milk, curds, ghee, oil, or green or raw vegetables.
Chaththa - To give up both food and water or only food continuously for two days.
Aththama - To give up food and water or only food continuously for three whole days.
Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
Masaksamana - To give up food and water or only food continuously for a whole month.
Santhara - To give up food and water entirely as voluntary death
Navkarsi: Food and water is consumed forty-eight (48) minutes after sunrise. For the orthodox, brushing teeth and rinsing one’s mouth must be done after sunrise.
Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
Tivihar: After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may take only water until sunrise the next day. Many Jains follow this type of fasting on daily basis.
Navapad oli - During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. These ayambils can also be restricted to only one kind of food grain per day.
Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.
Jain literature
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka, etc), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane, etc.). See Jain literature for more details. Tatvarth Sutra, Padma Puran (Rama Charitra), JinPravachanRahasya-Kosh, Chhahdhala and Shravakachars such as Ratnakarandak Sharavakachar and ShravakDharmaPrakash are available for free download at http://www.AtmaDharma.com
Jain worship and rituals
Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required.
Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.
Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains such as The Terapanthi Jains do not believe in idol worship hence do not have temples.
Jain rituals include:
Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
Pratikramana
Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.
The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.
Digambar and Shvetambar traditions
It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect.
The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes because they believe clothes are like all other possessions thereby increasing desire to material things, which needs to be removed. The Svetambar monks wear white clothes because they believe there is nothing in Jain religious books to condemn the wearing of clothes. The different points of view are caused by different interpretations of similar holy books. The sadhvis (lady religious persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect’s Agama (sacred) literature.
There are also many other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha,while Shvetambars believe that women can attain liberation.
Some historians believe that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition.
Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Shvetambaras.
Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanth, Deravasi, and Bisapantha. Some of these can be divided into murtipujak (idol worshipper) and not murtipujak. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.
[edit] Geographical spread and influence
Jain temple in RanakpurIt has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism.
The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.
At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab’s historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab.
It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad.
There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles.
Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Afghanistan.
Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions.
Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.
Jain contributions to Indian culture
While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable.
The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.
Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions and garlic.
According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India’s oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions.
Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India’s classical and popular languages.
In Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
Several of the Tamil classics are written by Jain authors or have Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
Practically all of the known texts of the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
Jainism and Indian archaeology
Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith’s roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the ’specialized sources’, below.)
Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.
Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later periods.
Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
Holy sites
Palitana TirthaThere are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India. 
Shikharji also know as Parasnathji located in Giridih district in the Jharkhand state is held to be the most sacred place of the Jains all over India. Parasnath Hill is about 4481 feet high. Parasnath Hill is Jerusalem to the Jains as, besides Mahavira, Twenty Tirthankaras had attained Nirvana at this hill.GoogleEarthLocation
Shravanabelagola, monumental statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara in Hassan District, Karnataka.
Dilwara Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in Ranakpur, Rajasthan.
Palitana, most visited Jain temple in Gujarat.
Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in Barwani District, Madhya Pradesh.
Gwalior’s fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
Bajrangarh, Atisaya-kshetra in Guna district in Madhya Pradesh, India
Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra having 63 temples, famous for beautiful statue of Bade Baba in Damoh district in Madhya Pradesh, India
There is also one temple in the United States that is considered to be a pilgrimage place. Siddhachalam is located in New Jersey.
Jain temples in the West
UK
The Jain Centre in Leicester, England, the first Jain Temple consecrated in the western world
The Oshwal Centre in Potters Bar, England, the only traditional Jain Temple in Europe.
USA
The Hindu Jain Temple in Monroeville, Pennsylvania is the first combined Hindu Jain temple in the World.
The Jain Center of Greater Boston in Norwood, Massachusetts is the first Jain Center in North America.
The Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago in Bartlett, Illinois
The Jain Center of Northern California in Milpitas, California
The Jain Center of America in Elmhurst, New York
The Jain Center of Greater Atlanta in Atlanta, Georgia
The Jain Society of Greater Detroit in Farmington Hills, Michigan
The Jain Society of Metropolitan Washington in Silver Spring, Maryland
The Siddhachalam, International Mahavir Jain Mission in Blairstown, New Jersey
The Jain Center of Southern California in Buena Park, California
The Jain Society of Houston in Houston, Texas
Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html
Holy days
Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, to observe, 10/8 important principles to follow.
Mahavir Jayanti, birthday of Lord Mahavir.
Diwali, day of attaining nirvana by Lord Mahavir.
Kshamavaani, The day of asking forgiveness from all.
Shawani Hirshnadi, The celebration of Hirsh’s triumph over the forces of evil.
The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.
Jainism and other religions
South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:
Jainism and Hinduism
Jainism and Buddhism
Jainism and Sikhism
Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:
Jainism and Christianity
Jainism and Judaism
Jainism and Islam
See also
Jainism Portal
List of Jains
Veganism
American Jainism
Jain community
Tamil Jains
Tulu Jains
Jainism in Delhi
Jainism in Gujarat
Jainism in Rajasthan
Jains of Maharashtra
Jainism in Mumbai
Jainism Portal at Wikipedia
Jains in India according to 2001 census
References
Introductory:
Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.
Detailed Introduction:
Shah, Natubhai, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Specialized sources:
Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
Cort, John, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India’, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
Vallely, Anne, Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001.
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article “Jainism”.
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