Myswizard

The Upanishad
The Upanishad (उपनिषद्, Upaniṣad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism.

A note: When -a a- come together at the join in a Sanskrit compound word, they run together to form -ā-, e.g. Vedānta is from Veda-anta = “Veda end”. See sandhi.
The Upanishad are commentaries on the Veda, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta = “End of the Veda”. The term Upanishad derives from the Sanskrit words upa (near), ni (down) and ṣad (to sit) = “sitting down near” a spiritual teacher to receive instruction in the Guru-shishya tradition or parampara. The teachers and students appear in a variety of settings (husband answering questions about immortality, a teenage boy being taught by Yama, or Death personified, etc.). Sometimes the sages are women and at times the instructions (or rather inspiration) are sought by kings.

Different Upanishad serve as commentaries or extensions of each of the four Veda (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda and Atharvaveda). The longest Upanishad are the Bŗhadāraṇyaka and the Chhāndogya.

According to tradition they were transmitted orally and at the end of Dvapara Yuga written down by Vyasa. Scholars’ opinions vary on when they first were written and estimates range between the 16th to 7th century BCE. Most scholars agree that many of the early Upanishads were written before the time of Buddha. Initially there were over two hundred Upanishads, but the philosopher Shankara only considered fifteen or so to be primary. Of the 123 books considered to be part of the Upanishad, 12 are accepted by all Hindus as primary. The Upanishad were not fully recorded until 1656, at the order of Dara Shikoh.

These philosophical and meditative tracts form the backbone of Hindu thought. Of the early Upanishads, the Aitareya and Kauṣītāki belong to the Rig Veda, Kena and Chhāndogya to the Samaveda, Īṣa and Taittirīya and Bŗhadāraṇyaka to the Yajurveda, and Praṣna and Muṇd.aka to the Atharvaveda. (Associated Upanishad and Vedic book information taken from Radhakrishnan Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1.) In addition, the Māṇd.ukya, Katha, Ṣvetāṣvatara are very important. Others also include Mahānārāyaṇa and Maitreyi Upanishads as key.

Origins
Scholarly breakdowns of the Vedic books see the four Vedas as poetic liturgy, collectively called mantra or sam.hitā-, adoration and supplication to a sort of melded monist and henotheist notion of the Gods/Goddesses and an overarching Order (Ŗta) that transcended even the Gods and stemmed from One Ultimate Source.

The Brāhmaṇa were a collection of ritual instructions, books detailing the priestly functions (which first were available to all men, and so concretized into strictly Brahmin privilege). These came after the Mantra.

Then we have the Upanishad, which consist of the Aranyaka and Upanishad. The `Araṇyaka’ (”of the forest”) detail meditative yogic practices, contemplations of the mystic one and the manifold manifested principles. The Upanishad basically realized all the monist and universal mystical ideas that started in earlier Vedic hymns, and have exerted an influence unprecedented on the rest of Hindu and Indian philosophy. However, by adherents they are not considered philosophy alone, and form meditations and practical teachings for those advanced enough to benefit from their wisdom.

The Upanishad give no clue as to when and who composed these texts. This anonymity emphasizes the eternal nature of the truths within. Often, critics of the Hindu/Vedic tradition will use the term Brahminical to imply a karma-kanda, or ritual-based mode of worship, a priests’ word that loses sight of deeper spirituality. However, it is widely acknowledged that those who wrote the mystic verse of the Upanishads were in all likelihood Brahmins as well.

Contents
The Taittiriya Upanishad says this in the Ninth Chapter:
“He who knows the Bliss of Brahman, whence words together with the mind turn away, unable to reach It? He is not afraid of anything whatsoever. He does not distress himself with the thought: “Why did I not do what is good? Why did I do what is evil?”. Whosoever knows this regards both these as Atman; indeed he cherishes both these as Atman. Such, indeed, is the Upanishad, the secret knowledge of Brahman.”

The Upanishad hold information on basic Hindu beliefs, including belief in a world soul, a universal spirit, Brahman, and an individual soul, Atman (Smith 10). A variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of this one divine ground, Brahman (different from Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent, the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. For Advaita philosophers Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic sense, as they do not ascribe to it any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in Sanskrit, the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender. Dvaita philosophy holds that Brahman is ultimately a personal God, Vishnu, or Krishna (brahmano hi pratisthaham, Bhagavad Gita 14.27).

“Who is the Knower” “What makes my mind think?” “Does life have a purpose, or is it governed by chance?” “What is the cause of the Cosmos?” The sages of the Upanishad try to solve these mysteries and seek knowledge of a Reality beyond ordinary knowing. They also show a preoccupation with states of consciousness, and observed and analysed dreams as well as dreamless sleep.

The philosophy of the Upanishad
Due to their mystic nature and intense philosophical bent that does away with all ritual and completely embraces principals of One Brahman and the inner Atman, the Upanishad have a universal feel that has led to their explication in numerous manners, giving birth to the three schools of Vedanta.

Monist philosopher Adi Shankara summed up all the Upanishad in one phrase “Tat Twam Asi” (Thou Art That) and said that in the end, the ultimate, formless, inconceivable Brahman is the same as our soul, Atman. We only have to realize it through discrimination and piercing through Maya.

A distinctive quotation that is indicative of the call to self-realization, one that inspired Somerset Maugham in titling a book he wrote on Christopher Isherwood, is as follows:

Get up! Wake up! Seek the guidance of an
Illumined teacher and realize the Self.
Sharp like a razor’s edge is the path,
The sages say, difficult to traverse.
— Death Instructing Nachiketa in the Katha (Word) Upanishad

The Upanishads also contain the first and most definitive explications of aum as the divine word, the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence and contains multiple trinities of being and principles subsumed into its One Self. The Isha says of the Self (Verses 6, 7 & 8 of Ishopanishad):

Whoever sees all beings in the soul
and the soul in all beings
does not shrink away from this.
In whom all beings have become one with the knowing soul
what delusion or sorrow is there for the one who sees unity?
It has filled all.
It is radiant, incorporeal, invulnerable,
without tendons, pure, untouched by evil.
Wise, intelligent, encompassing, self-existent,
it organizes objects throughout eternity.
“Aum Shanti Shanti Shanti” This, too, is found first in the Upanishads, the call for tranquility, for divine stillness, for Peace everlasting.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article “The Upanishad”.

Hinduism

Hinduism (हिन्दू धर्म; also known as Sanātana Dharma - सनातन धर्म, and Vaidika-Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Vedas and is the direct descendent of the Vedic Indo-Iranian religion. It encompasses many religious traditions that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities, all manifestations of the one supreme monistic Ishvara, are venerated. Beliefs, codes and principles vary from region to region. It has proven impossible to trace the beginning of Vedic religion, although modern estimates of Hinduism’s origin vary from 3102 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is also the third largest religion in the world with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in India. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.

Core Concepts

The Eternal Way
“Sanātana Dharma” (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values ), the traditional name of Hinduism, speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as /brəh mən/, nominative singular being ब्रह्म or /brəh mə/), the Supreme immanent and transcendent Reality or the Cosmic Spirit.

Hinduism’s aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra:

OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityor māmritam gamaya
“OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.”

Hindus believe that every living being is an eternally existing spirit (the soul or the self). Upon physical death, this soul passes from one body to another in accordance with the laws of Karma and reincarnation.
Basic beliefs
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in Dharma (duties and obligations), Reincarnation (rebirth), Karma (”actions”, leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Moksha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action) and Jnana (knowledge), and of course, belief in God (Ishvara/Bhagavan). Reincarnation or the soul’s transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Moksha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the divine supreme and lead to a birth with higher-consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the divine supreme and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even Heaven (svarga) and Hell (naraka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the “universal spirit” (depending on belief), is known as moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus.

The other principles include the guru/chela dynamic, the Divinity of Word of OM and the power of mantras (religious hymn), manifestations of the divine’s spirit in all forms of existence (pantheism); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the (Atman/Brahman) is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine.

Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or Raja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvana.

The four objectives Of Life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the purusharthas, the “four objectives of life”. They are kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is said that all beings seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is moksha (salvation), also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samadhi, Nirvana, or escape from Samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

The four stages of Life
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today’s lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Ashramas (”phases” or “stages”). They are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first quarter of one’s life, Brahmacharya (”meditation in Brahma”) is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastya is the householder’s stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one’s children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as the renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

Lord Krishna revealing the eternal super-consciousness to Arjuna
The four classes of the society
The Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four great classes, based on profession—the Brahmanas: teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors, kings and administrators; the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the Shudras: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a varna and the system was called Varna Vyavastha. It is highly debatable whether the varna system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The Shruti texts make very rare mentions of this system at some places, without defining things very much. The Smriti texts (including the notorious Manusmriti) have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was only based upon the profession (and character), and there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system sadly became fixed by birth. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of untouchables outside the Varna Vyavastha), the system evolved into the caste system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are going away in modern India.

Nature of God
The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (Param-atman), One without form, shape, gender, begining or the end (Nirguna, Nirankara). In Hinduism God is a form of Cosmic Energy or Universal Power to create, to preserve and to destroy. To make it easily understandable to primitive people more than five thousand years ago, a concept of the Trinity - god of creation (Brahma), god of preservation (Vishnu) and god of destruction (Shiva) - gods with various physical forms and symbols were introduced. To make it even more tangible and to emphasize the importance of righteous way of life, there is a feminine aspect to the Trinity (Sarswati, Lakshmi and Parvati, respectively) and even their offsprings (Ganesha and Kartikeya). Hinduism because of its very concept, even incorporated some the religious beliefs, gods and goddesses of native people conquered by early Hindus. Some people misunderstand Hinduism as multigod religion but that is absolutely untrue. One of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous hindu generations: ekam satyaha vipra bahuda vadanti meaning ‘The True god is one though addressed by multiple names’. There also exists the lord of the universe, whom some call as Vishnu and some as Shiva, and other devas as different aspects of the potency of one Brahman. Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both transcendent and immanent, absolute infinite existence, and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as a panentheistic “universal spirit”. The personality behind Brahman is known as Parabrahman (The superior Brahman).

Unlike Abrahamic religions which believe in a strictly personal God, Hindus believe in a both the personal and impersonal concept of God, usually called as Ishvara (ईश्वर, lit., the Supreme Lord). Hindus maintain that Ishvara is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as Vishnu or transformations such as Shiva while Vaishnavites and Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Ishvara. The terms Ishvara and devas must not be confused. Devas could be as numerous as 840 million. These Devas may variously be translated into English as gods, demi-gods, deities, spirits or angels. Ishvara could be viewed in any way, as a non-corporeal, infinite, spiritual being, or as anthropomorphic deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, for the sake of devotional worship. Note that Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahadevas.

Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman) or with attributes (Saguna Brahman, equated with Ishvara) as God. In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon mind. Thus according to Smarta views, the divine can be with attributes, Saguna Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Saguna Brahman such Vishnu or Shiva is viewed as male. Vaishnavites consider Vishnu to be the source of Brahman. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or Shakti. However, the Divine and divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the divine and the actual heat Shakti.

Though all the different paths of Moksha (salvation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smarta traditions, depicts an inclusively monotheistic religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.

Denominations

Each of the Hinduism’s four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life’s ultimate goal (moksha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Ishvara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.

Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians and Muslims differ on their view of God, Hindus believe in one God but differ in their views of God. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess Devi or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. The Trimurti concept (also called the Hindu trinity) of Smartism denotes the three aspects of the divine as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati’s Arya Samaj which condemns iconolatry, veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yajña).

Smārtism

Smārtas invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal gods (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smārtism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smārta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent Smārtins like Swami Vivekananda.

Vaishnavism

A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu (विष्णु) as the supreme being, and considers other deities as subordinate (like demi-gods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Vishnu ultimately grants moksha. Vaisnavites, consider worship of other gods as secondary due to Krishna’s (who is a form of Vishnu) sayings in the Gita :

Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me (Gita: 7:21-22)

O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction (Gita: 9:23).

Shaivism

Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that Shiva (शिव) is the supreme being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either monistic or dualistic philosophies.

Shaktism

Shaktas worship Shakti (or Devi) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity. The “History of the Shakta Religion” explains that The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedanta, Samkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it.

Shaivite views often consider Shaktism to be sub-denomination of Saivism, arguing that Devi is worshipped as female in order to attain union with Siva, who in Saivism is the male counterpart of Devi and in Shaktism, is viewed as the formless Absolute.

Hindu sacred texts

The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.

Shruti

The Vedas (वेद, literally, “Knowledge”) are considered as Shruti by Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Brahman to the rishis while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of “Eternal Knowledge”. The four Vedas (the Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas) are various shakhas or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Samhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are the Brāhmaņas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āranyakas (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the Upanişhads (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (Atman) and the Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals associated with like, like the Dharmashastras, Grihyasutras, etc but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or Vedic literature.

The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upanishads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vrtti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauna vrtti) as secondary: saksad upadesas tu srutih - “The instructions of the sruti-sastra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations.” (Jiva Gosvami, Krsna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as “purifying” by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation.

The Bhagavad Gita describes the mind as turbulent and obstinate. ‘The Chariot of the Body’: The five horses represent the five senses (tongue, eyes, nose, ears and skin). The rein symbolises the mind, the driver is the intelligence while the passenger is the spirit soul.
Bhagavad Gita

A core sacred text of Hinduism and its philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita (भगवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gita, is a summation of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric philosophies. The Bhagavad Gita, meaning “The Song Divine”, refers to itself as a ‘Yoga Upanishad’ and is sometimes called Gītopanişad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahabharata.

While technically it is considered as Smriti text, it has singularly achieved nearly the status of Shruti, or revealed knowledge. The Bhagavad-gita is described as the essence of the Vedas. This Gita is easy to follow and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, that are most esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practicing Hindus.

Smriti

The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the Smritis (lit., “memory”), all of which laud the Vedas; the most notable of them are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, major epics considered sacred by all followers of Sanatana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today’s Hindus include the Shrimad Bhagavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Vishnu as the highest goal, Devi Mahatmya, an ode to Devi, and the Yoga Sutras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmriti, the 18 Purāņas which vividly describe later Hinduism’s deities and mythology, and Sutras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvana Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sutras. The eighteen Purāņas, or Ancients, are divided into three groups of six. The Purāņas’ groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahmā Purāņas: Brahma Purāņa, Brahmanda Purāņa, Brahma Vaivarta Purāņa, Markandeya Purāņa, Bhavishya Purāņa, and the Vamana Purāņa; 2) the Vishnu Purāņas: the Vishnu Purāņa, the Bhagavata Purāņa, the Naradeya Purāņa, the Garuda Purāņa, the Padma Purāņa, and the Varaha Purāņa; and 3) the Shiva Purāņas: the Vayu Purāņa, the Linga Purāņa, the Skanda Purāņa, the Agni Purāņa, the Matsya Purāņa, and the Karma Purāņa. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and many Purāņas are much more widely read by today’s Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Agamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. The Shrutis take precedence over Smriti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavas regard the Purāņas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.

Origins and society

Origins of Hinduism

The Sun Temple in Konark, Orissa is one of the most famous stone monument in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God Surya.Hinduism is the world’s oldest major religion in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. Hindu puranas and astronomical evidence within place Lord Krishna’s birth at a date of 3100 BCE Krishna’s incarnation was preceded by Lord Rama’s, sometimes dated at over 5,000 BCE, or even millions of years ago according to the Ramayana. It is believed by many Hindus that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama, believed to be the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Modern indology, on the other hand, suggests that Hinduism only developed sometime between 1500-1300 BCE based on the linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu spiritual texts. This, however, is based on the Aryan invasion theory, which has increasingly been doubted due to archaeological findings suggesting that there was never such an invasion.

The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called rişhis, over a long period of time. The Vedas are said to have been transmitted to Lord Brahma by Lord Vishnu via meditative trance at the beginning of each creation.

The term ‘Hindu’ itself is a corrupt form of the word ‘Sindhu’, which literally means ‘dweller across the Indus Valley’. The religion is often named (more appropriately) as Sanatana Dharma in all of its books. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Arya Dharma, meaning, a noble religion.

Etymology
Though linguists and historians haven’t reached a consensus, the term Hindu is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the Sindhu (सिन्धु, i.e., the Indus) river, which is known as Hindu in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, Mohan-jo-Daro civilization is documented to be around five thousand years old. As evidenced by its structure, this was a very advanced civilization. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that. In the Iranian linguistic branch, the /s/ of the Indic branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the /h/ sound of Iranian (as represented by Avestan and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as sapta sindhu (the land of seven rivers). This became the term Hapta-Hindu in Avesta (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in China) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The Greek term “India” was originally pronounced Hindia, as in classical Greek there was no character for “h”. In modern Persian and Arabic, the term Hindustan denotes the Indian subcontinent, and Hind or Al-Hind is used to denote the Republic of India.

The word Hindu (हिन्दु), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviŞhya Purāņa, Kālikā Purāņa, Merutantra, Rāmakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarūpakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called Hindustan or Hind in Hindi, Persian, Arabic, etc. Note that the word Hindustan also has other meanings.

Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define Hinduism as a distinct religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam. Some scholars, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, defined it as a religion based on the Vedas, using the analogy of the Bible being the basis of Christianity and the Koran being the Muslim scripture.

That even an atheist may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving philosophies and ancient traditions.

Vedic religion

Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centers on worship of the deities Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called yajña (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta, which are sometimes traced back to either the influence of the 3rd millennium BC Indus Valley Civilisation, or to a 2nd millennium BC Indo-Iranian migration (see Aryan invasion theory), or to a combination of these.

Hindu nationalism

In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva (”Hinduness”, paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since “Hindu” is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that “no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms ‘Hindu’, ‘Hindutva’ and ‘Hinduism’; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage.” Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by Savarkar in his seminal work ‘Hindutva’. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990’s and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a Rama temple at the site of the controversial Babri mosque (whose domes were destroyed by some Hindutva fanatics) in Ayodhya. Lord Rama was said to have born at that site, over which, claim some people and historians, the Mughal commander Mir Baki had built the Babri mosque after destroying a Vaishnavite temple commemorating the birthplace, in his alleged frenzy of iconoclasm.

Temples

Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the Meenakshi temple in southern India.Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the agama shastras and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four Shankaracharyas (the abbots of the monasteries of Badrinath, Puri, Sringeri and Dwarka, four of the holiest pilgrimage centers) are viewed as the four highest Patriarchs of the Hindudom.

Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), puja, meditation, and religious congregation among other religious activities. Puja or worship, frequently uses the aid of a murti (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (devotional songs), and arti are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. This form of icon and temple worship, puja, is integral to the Bhakti cult.

Most Hindu homes also have a section devoted for daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation.

Current geographic distribution

Largest gathering of humanity on Earth. Around 70 million people participated in Kumbh Mela at Haridwar.
Hinduism continues to grow, as is evidenced by the modern Neasden Temple in London.Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in India (i.e. Bharat). Nepal, some Indonesian islands, Bhutan, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Guyana, Singapore, and Suriname have significant density of Hindu populations. In Nepal and Bali the major religion is Hinduism and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. Prior to the arrival of Islam, areas of the region now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan were also predominantly Hindu or Buddhist.

Apart from these countries Bangladesh (14.4 million), Sri Lanka (3 million), Pakistan (2.5 million), Malaysia (1.5 million), United States (1.5 million), South Africa (1.1 million) and the Middle East (1 million) also have sizable Hindu populations.

Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought

The six Āstika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Sāmkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāmsā (also called just ‘Mīmāmsā’), and Uttara Mīmāmsā (also called ‘Vedanta’). The non-Vedic schools are called Nāstika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika.

Pūrva Mīmāmsā

The main objective of Pūrva (”earlier”) Mīmāmsā school (also simply called Mīmāmsā) was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school’s most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought led to later development of advaita philosophy which is key to the Sanatana/Hindu Dharma and was especially championed by philosophers like Adi Sankara and Swami Vivekananda.

Yoga

In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Some historians believe that this 5000 thousand years old sculpture is of a yogi.Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God (Ishvara).

Upanishads, sage Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Gyana Yoga. Of these, the Yoga Sutra is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.

Uttara Mimāmsā: Vedānta and its three main schools

The Uttara (”later”) Mimāmsā school, also called as Vedanta, is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their commentaries by Bādarāyaņa — the Vedanta Sutras, Vedānta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on unity of the whole God. The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, Advaita and the schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva, focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature.

Pure monism: Advaita Vedanta

Advaita literally means “not two”; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes oneness of all Divine. Its proponent was Sankara (788?-820?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavadpada. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical.

To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not ‘God’ but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God (Ishvara) such as Vishnu or Shiva are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman. In fact, when a being tries to know the Supreme Spirit (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the Supreme Lord (Ishvara), under the effect of an illusioanry power of Brahman called Māyā. True knowledge of the Brahman (Jñāna) is the only way to liberation.

God’s energy may also be personified as Devi, the Divine Mother. For Vaishnvaites who follow Ramanuja’s philosophy, Devi is Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads with Vishnu for the salvation of humankind. For Shaivites, Devi is Parvati. For Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the physical form of God. See Advaita Vedanta for more.

Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita Bhakti

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Nārāyaņa as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Rāmānuja’s system is known as qualified non-dualism. Karma along with Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.

Dualism: Dvaita Bhakti

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. Bhakti is the only way for liberation.

Alternative cultures of worship

The Bhakti schools

Shri Ganesh is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is widely worshipped as Vignesh, the remover of obstacles.The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee’s heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. ‘Sins’ and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.

Tantra

This is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with an Yantra ,which is a mystical digram. All acts of worship which include Mantras,Yantras are called Tantras.

Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path( also known as samayachara or Dakshinachara) and the Left hand path (Vamachara).

Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus.

For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given, said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.
The word “tantra” also means “treatise” or “continuum”, and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as “tantric”. Most tantras were written in the middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.

Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism

This young Indian brahmachari bears on his forehead the distinctive triple-line tilaka (made out of ash, referred to as vibhuti) and on his chest a rudraksha (eye of Rudra) and mala (rosary), both symbols of Lord Shiva.
Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows)
Main article: Tilaka
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic “third eye.” It is most commonly seen as a dot (or Bindu) worn by women, especially married women, and carries connotations of marriage and auspiciousness.

Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god Shiva. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent Ţīkā (tilaka) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a ‘U’ shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three horizontal lines for Shiva. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow

Ahimsa is a concept which advocates non-violence and a respect for all life — human, as well as animal. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads and in Raja Yoga, it is the first of the five yamas, or eternal vows/restraints of yoga.

A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today’s Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain northerly states like Gujarat, where there is significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian - primarily lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic.

Those Hindus who do eat meat predominantly abstain from beef, some even avoid the usage of leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied so heavily on the cow for dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer that its status as a ‘caretaker’ led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (so the term gau mata). While most Hindus do not worship the cow, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva’s attendant is Nandi, the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the sacred nature of the cow (Sacred cow), it is no wonder that most Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef.

Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are quintessentially a part of its culture and representative of its general ethos:

Aum (ॐ) is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. Its contains a deep symbolic message; which is considered as divine primordial vibration of the Universe which represents all existence, encompassing all of nature into the One Ultimate Reality.

Swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble and auspicious symbol. It stands for satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used in ancient cultures around the world and predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures still hold it to be auspicious, especially in India, in spite of the recent association with Nazism which used a modified version of this symbol.

Murtis (icons)

The dancing posture of Lord Śiva, known as the Nataraja, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu artWhether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.

Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (mūrti) which are conduits for the devotee’s consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines).

In a Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Veneration of such Mūrtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues.

Some of deities worshipped are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Swaminarayan, Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Agni, Skanda and Hanuman. Also, the Puranas list twenty-five avatara of Vishnu : Caturasana, Narad, Varaha, Matsya, Yajna, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Hayasirsa, Hamsa, Prsnigarbha, Rsabha, Prithu, Narasimha , Kurma, Dhanvantari, Mohini, Vamana, Parasurama, Raghavendra, Vyasa, Balarama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.

Mantra

Reciting mantras or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help ‘invoke’ one’s inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi’s dying words were a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: “Hé Rām!”‘.

The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda 3.62.10 (see Sanskrit for pronunciation):

Devanagari: ॐ भूर्भुवस्वः | तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्
Transliteration (IPA):/ OM bhūr bhuvə svəḥ | tət səvitur vəreṇyəm | bhərgo devəsya dhīməhi | dhiyo yo nəḥ prəçodəyαt ||/
Translation: “May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the God / so may He stimulate our prayers.”
It is considered one of the most sacred of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges) while chanting this mantra.

Criticism
Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as Dowry, Sati and casteism.

Some sociologists claim that the Dowry system, which was non-existent before the late middle ages, can be attributed to the coming of the colonial and imperialist British with their land ownership rights and the associated revenues. Prior to the British instituted system, no single person held land ownership - in fact the village as a whole owned the land - so no give or take could be possible during weddings. Once individual and fractious land ownership was forcibly introduced by the British (as this facilitated the exploitation and pillage of Indian wealth by the Colonialists), it became possible for land to be traded and offered as gift or transferred. Prior to the British Dowry system, the only wealth given during weddings was the jewelry/ornaments passed from mother to daughter as has been happening since generations. Even now this tradition continues, but has been subsumed by the larger British Dowry system. Citation needed

From the worldview of the three Abrahamic religions, Hinduism is criticized as being polytheistic and for promoting idolatry - both of which they consider evil. The Hindu counter-argument is that Hinduism is not polytheistic (monism or monistic theism is more apt), though it may present an appearance of polytheism to external observers not familiar with its philosophy. Also with regard to idolatry, which is defined as worship of God who does not conform to the Abrahamic YHVH, accusations are natural because of the exclusive nature of Abrahamic religions. Hinduism on the other hand, is more tolerant of God as defined by other religions and does not subscribe to similar ideas of false god or idolatry. Furthermore, some Westerners or followers of Abrahamic religions see the Hindu “gods and goddesses” and mythology as only sexuality and violence—which consequently makes the Hindu deities appear like immoral devils. Hindus strongly condemn such interpretations, most of which, according to them, is not only a stupid and shallow analysis of the Hindu dharma but also willfull and gross misinterpretation of Hindu iconography and mythology, in order to demean Hinduism.

Another criticism is that Hinduism supported a pacified people with an indifferent attitude towards material life. This is supposed to have created an attitude of living with problems rather than solving it which is in contrast with the European civilizations.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article “Hinduism”.

Weekly Consciousness Tune-Up
December 4th – December 10th, 2005

One Big Look

This is the week in which we first hear of the famous Biblical story of Jacob’s ladder. As the story goes, Jacob is traveling in the desert to meet up with his brother Esau. Along the way Jacob stops to sleep, and he dreams of a ladder with angels going up and down.

We can look at this as a nice, mythical story, or we can draw lessons for our own life.

The Zohar teaches us that during sleep a part of our soul detaches from our body and travels back to its source, an eternal realm beyond time, space, and motion. Our soul communicates with us from this place, sending us messages about what we need to change, dangerous situations to avoid, methods for removing our fears, opportunities coming our way – everything.

During the waking state we’re usually oblivious to the messages the Light is sending us, but in the dream state we can’t escape ourselves. We step outside and take one big look at our lives - where we’ve been, where we are, and where we’re headed.

That’s why kabbalists do their greatest spiritual work at night. In the nighttime we’re unburdened by the illusions of the 1% world, and we see clearly into the 99% world.

A helpful practice for this week is when you are lying in bed, waiting for sleep to come, start talking. It can be a whisper out loud or inside your head. Many people write into a journal. The point is to begin an honest, truthful dialogue with your soul. Address the issues that are weighing on your mind. Ask your soul to guide you through the night into a place of clarity. Ask questions – but be willing to receive the answer. Most of the time, if we don’t get an answer, it means we are not willing to hear it.

Another beautiful lesson revealed by the Zohar is that our dreams are a result of our merit. The acts of sharing and transformation we do during the day, or lack thereof, determine how pure or impure are dreams are. Let’s not forget the Opponent has many tricks and giving us the wrong messages in our dreams is one of them.

Of course, it’s often difficult to decipher the bizarre language of dreams. The Sages warn us that the interpretation is directly tied to the manifestation, which is why we shouldn’t share our dreams with just anyone. Do you have a Kabbalah teacher? If so, are you talking with them about your dreams? Maybe this is the week to start. And if you don’t have a teacher, speak to your local Kabbalah Centre’s Student Coordinator or call our Student Support Department (1-800-KABBALAH.) It’s really important to have a teacher, someone who cares about you and with whom you can speak about the meanings of your nighttime visions.

And remember, if you are in a mode of sharing during the day, you can expect message-filled dreams at night.

Have a beautiful start to the miraculous month of Sagittarius.

All the Best,

Yehuda

What is “Noetic”?
The word “noetic” comes from the ancient Greek nous, for which there is no exact equivalent in English. It refers to “inner knowing,” a kind of intuitive consciousness—direct and immediate access to knowledge beyond what is available to our normal senses and the power of reason.

What are ‘Noetic Sciences’?
Noetic sciences are explorations into the nature and potentials of consciousness using multiple ways of knowing—including intuition, feeling, reason, and the senses. Noetic sciences explore the “inner cosmos” of the mind (consciousness, soul, spirit) and how it relates to the “outer cosmos” of the physical world.

Noetic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Noetic, from the Greek νοῦς (nous) is usually translated as “mind”, “understanding”, “intellect”, or “reason”. Most dictionaries define the term noetic as a synonym of “mental” or “intellectual.” However, in recent decades, the term has taken on new usages among New Age authors and teachers. The Institute of Noetic Sciences defines noetic as, roughly, ‘relating to consciousness or intuition’.

The ancient Pythagoreans and Platonists used the term to mean “the cosmic soul”. According to Neo-Platonic cosmology, the nous emanates from the One.

Anaxagoras wrote:

All other things partake in a portion of everything, while Nous is infinite and self-ruled, and is mixed with nothing, but is alone, itself by itself. For if it were not by itself, but were mixed with anything else, it would partake in all things if it were mixed with any; for in everything there is a portion of everything, as has been said by me in what goes before, and the things mixed with it would hinder it, so that it would have power over nothing in the same way that it has now being alone by itself. For it is the thinnest of all things and the purest, and it has all knowledge about everything and the greatest strength; and Nous has power over all things, both greater and smaller, that have soul. (Translation by J. Burnet)

From the nous emerges the world soul, which gives rise to the manifest realm. These mystical, cosmic and holistic connotations are why the New Age movement has embraced the term noetic and used it to refer to the exploration of individual or cosmic consciousness.

See mind-body-spirit…links

[Excerpt from VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, authors and Jan Mares]

In recent years we see a great spread of terms “reincarnation” and “karma” in public awareness. It is largely due to media which present reports, documents, movies, books a other products with this topic. If we set aside an analysis of this state we can briefly say that it shows a dissatisfaction with answers to existential questions given by modern science and various Western philosophies and religions.

Indeed, these sources cannot answer satisfactorily many of questions made by people nowadays. This creates a space for other philosophical sources and traditions to fill this vacuum. Most often they are various branches of so-called natural religions or various traditions of Eastern philosophies. Among other things they have in common these terms although their explanations differ in details. Their common denominator however is a cyclic perception of time (creation of the world happens repeatedly) whereas contemporary Western science adopted from Judeo-Christian tradition the linear perception of time (creation of the world is only a one-shot event).

Exceptional position among them belongs to Vedic tradition (sometimes incorrectly called hinduism) thanks to its ancient origin and authority based on the oldest texts in the world - Vedic scriptures. Because they are at the same time the widest and most detailed information source about these and many other topics, they definitely deserve attention.

Primary goal of Hare Krishna Movement is to inform the general public with knowledge contained in these books and bring into practice alternative lifestyle and culture based on them.

2. Attitude of Western science to reincarnation

Modern Western science from its beginnings considered the concept of reincarnation to be a mere religious belief or superstition and refused to explore its theses and effects.

Main problem is that science was not and still is not able to explain the life phenomenon. Even though there were attempts to explain the basis and origin of life as a biochemical combination of matter, these theories cannot satisfactorily answer many questions like e.g. origin of unlimited species of life, inherent abilities or experiences of people who went through a clinical death.

In 1966 British molecular biologist and Nobel Prize laureate Francis Crick (* 1916) published that is is possible to scientifically prove, that life is nothing more than complex chemical reaction. He also predicted that in near future science will succeed to synthetically create artificial organisms. But until now there was no success in this field even though highly advanced technologies and billion dollar expenses were used. Many scientists are thus forced to admit that bold claims of Crick and others are just empty promises. Hungarian-american biochemist and Nobel Prize laureate Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1893-1986) wrote about it:

“While searching for the secret of life I ended up by atoms and electrons which do not show any signs of life. Somewhere on the way the life had to slip through my fingers. Now in my old age I have to backtrack.” (Biology Today, Del Mar, California, 1972)

Life as Vedic science explains is nothing physical or chemical and therefore it is subjected to laws of another nature than those guiding the movements of anorganic matter. Bhagavad-gita, a crucial work of Vedic philosophy, describes these laws as higher, subtle natural laws. Common scientific methods and devices cannot ascertain these higher laws, what to speak of helping to explain them.

3. Eight elements and two bodies

Bhagavad-gita (7.4) describes that the whole material world is composed of eight basic elements - five gross material and three subtle material.

Gross material elements are: earth, water, fire, air and ether. In modern terminology: solid substances, liquids, radiating energy, gasses and all-pervading space. Existence of ether is on the verge of modern science’s abilities to explore it and therefore it is doubted. But it is ether which enables wireless electromagnetic data transmission through space, without which modern communication systems could not function. Its existence was confirmed by Michelson-Gale experiment. (Physicist A. A. Michelson was not satisfied after previous, better known Michelson-Morley experiment and continued to explore the ether. His work culminated in Michelson-Gale experiment which was later independently verified by Georges M.M. Sagnac - www.orgonelab.org/miller.htm)

Scientific proof

All phenomena in this world perceivable by our senses are a combination of these five basic elements.

Above these five gross are three subtle material elements: mind, intelligence and false ego. Although we cannot perceive them due to their higher nature they are still material. Together they constitute so-called subtle material body (in Sanskrit linga-sarira, desire body, also called astral body) in which our thinking, feeling and willing is manifested. This means that our thoughts, feelings and desires correspond to our mind (manas) and intelligence (buddhi). Ahankara creates our false identification with our body (therefore “false ego”).

That which we usually consider a body is therefore composed of two various bodies - gross material a subtle material body. This can be understood with the example of a dream. During a dream our consciousness leaves our gross material daily body, identifies with subtle material dream body and after awakening again identifies with the gross material visible body. In both cases the consciousness, proper self (jiva) remains separated from both bodies. This is obvious from the fact that it observes them - it is a witness (saksi) of their activity - and identifies with them.

4. Soul (jiva) - source of consciousness

Sanskrit terms jiva or atma, sometimes connected into one - jivatma, are for the lack of suitable term in other languages denoted as soul.

Bhagavad-gita (7.5) describes that above these eight material elements is soul which is superior to them:

“Besides these [eight], O mighty-armed Arjuna, there is another, superior energy of Mine, which comprises the living entities who are exploiting the resources of this material, inferior nature.”

Well-known psychoanalyst C.G. Jung describes the soul as “greatest of cosmic miracles”, which is able within the frame of natural laws to manipulate material energy according to its desire and thus use it for its own benefit.

Interactions of embodied soul with its gross- and subtle material body create a web of unlimited complex reactions which cannot be described by simple laws of modern physics, chemistry or molecular biology. Therefore these natural sciences are unable to define precise difference between living and dead body.

If we would say that life is nothing more than a combination of material molecules then it should be possible bring dead body back to life by mere adding of chemicals whose lack caused death. It should be also possible to create an artificial life in a lab. However, these numerous attempts were unsuccessful and scientists’ interest switched to cloning. The reason is that life comes always and only from life and never from dead matter. Bhagavad-gita (2.17-18) explains that the difference between living and dead body is the presence of the soul. As soon as the soul leaves the body we consider it dead.

Second chapter of Bhagavad-gita (2.20-25) describes characteristics of the soul:

“For the soul there is neither birth nor death. It has not come into being, does not come into being, and will not come into being. It is unborn, eternal, ever-existing and primeval. It is not slain when the body is slain. As a person puts on new garments, giving up old ones, the soul similarly accepts new material bodies, giving up the old and useless ones. The soul can never be cut to pieces by any weapon, nor burned by fire, nor moistened by water, nor withered by the wind. This individual soul is unbreakable and insoluble, and can be neither burned nor dried. He is everlasting, present everywhere, unchangeable, immovable and eternally the same. It is said that the soul is invisible, inconceivable and immutable. Knowing this, you should not grieve for the body.”

All these qualities of of the soul are outside the field of perceivable molecular reactions. Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Danish nuclear physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, noted:

“In physics and chemistry we cannot find anything at least marginally proving the existence of consciousness. And still we all know that there is something like consciousness, simply because we have it ourselves. Consciousness therefore must be a part of nature, or expressed more commonly, a part of reality. This means that aside of physical and chemical laws described quantum theory there are laws with completely different nature.”

5. Three modes (gunas)

According to Vedic scriptures all variety of species of life is created by a combination of three basic modes of material energy, in Sanskrit called gunas. Here is again seen a limitation of other languages because they lack suitable synonym. Closest is probably the Latin word modus. Guna is therefore a kind of modus operandi (means of functioning) of material energy. They are called:

- sattva-guna (harmony, goodness)
- rajo-guna (activity, passion)
- tamo-guna (inertia, ignorance)

Bodies of individual species can be compared to various apartments or houses of different sizes, shapes and colors temporarily inhabited by embodied soul. Bodily forms limit (under the control of three modes) its freedom of movement and activities as well as possibilities of individual enjoyment. Influence of modes on people describes Bhagavad-gita (18.26-28):

“One who performs his duty without association with the modes of material nature, without false ego, with great determination and enthusiasm, and without wavering in success or failure is said to be a worker in the modes of goodness. The worker who is attached to work and the fruits of work, desiring to enjoy those fruits, and who is greedy, always envious, impure, and moved by joy and sorrow, is said to be in the mode of passion. The worker who is always engaged in work against the injunctions of the scripture, who is materialistic, obstinate, cheating and expert in insulting others, and who is lazy, always morose and procrastinating is said to be a worker in the mode of ignorance.”

6. Internal reincarnation - change of bodies in present life

Consciousness and physical form are directly related. Body and consciousness of little baby necessarily differs from body and consciousness of a young or old person. It can be said that soul travels during the development of the body from birth to death through different bodies with different consciousness. We may not be aware how we are constantly changing bodies in this life because this change is very subtle, gradual and hard to perceive. Did we notice as children how our body grows? We did notice it only when we were reminded of it by someone who saw us after a longer period of time.

This fact is confirmed also by biologists. American anthropologist John. E. Pfeiffer (* 1914) writes his book Human Brain (1955): “Our body today does not contain even one molecule from seven years ago.”

Despite this constant change of bodies we, souls, remain still the same unchanged persons.

Let us say that we are today thirty years old but we are still the same person who was five or twenty years old. We are just in a different gross body. Our current body during the time somehow changed, e.g. we gained more abilities, strength and knowledge, but we are the same persons, we have not become anyone else. Characteristics, abilities, knowledge and perceptions - all this we own but despite all external changes our identity does not change.

This transmigration of soul through many bodies during one life we can call gradual or internal reincarnation.

7. External reincarnation - change of body at the time of death

What will happen with the soul at the time of death of present physical body? In other words: Where are we going when we die? Do we have an influence over our next situation? Can we choose our future life?

In Bhagavad-gita (2.13) we will find answers:

“As the embodied soul continuously passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death. A sober person is not bewildered by such a change.quot;

Bhagavad-gita further explains that state of consciousness in critical moment of death is crucial for the choice of new body:

“Whatever state of being one remembers when he quits his present body, in his next life he will attain to that state without fail.quot;

At the moment of death the soul together subtle body leaves the gross, physical body. It is the subtle body and our desires and thoughts recorded therein and recalled by us at this moment which are decisive as to the destination of our next body. This transmigration of soul from one body to another is called external reincarnation (samsara or samsriti in Sanskrit).

Srimad Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana) 5.11.5-7 mentions that mind is attracted by sense enjoyment, pious or impious. Thus it is subject to three modes of material nature and causes corresponding births in various types of bodies, higher or lower. Therefore the soul suffers material unhappiness or enjoys material material happiness because of the mind. Thus mind under the influence of illusion creates further pious and impious activities and their karma and the soul becomes conditioned by them. Sages say that the mind is the cause of bodily features bondage and liberation.

Here is refuted one widely spread idea that the soul cannot fall from the human body anymore, i.e. achieve animal or another lower body. Human form differs from lower forms in such a way that the soul in it has a free will and thus also a responsibility for its actions (karma).

The fact that the soul reincarnates together with subtle body is confirmed also by parapsychological research. With the help of various methods many people could recall from their subconsciousness memories of previous lives. This would not be be possible if the carrier of these memories would not incarnate together with the soul. According to the Vedic scriptures the memory is the function of intelligence, a part of subtle body. Although at the time of birth we forget our previous life, it is possible by certain means to restore active memories of our previous incarnations. These means however are not always cent percent reliable. In certain exceptional cases, especially in children, is proved a spontaneous ability of recall without external influence of medium or therapist.

8. Definition of term “reincarnation”

Reincarnation (from Latin “re”, again + “incarnare”, make flesh) is a continuous transmigration of the soul together with its subtle material body from one gross material body to another according to its individual karma.

Reincarnation is therefore a process and law of karma is directing it. Examples of various kinds of karma and their effects you will find at Samsara

B. Karma - The Law Behind Reincarnation
1. Law of action and reaction
2. Free will and fate
3. Karma from the action point of view
4. Karma from the reaction point of view
5. Four phases of karma
6. Three kinds of karma

1. Law of action and reaction

Term “karma” is inseparably connected with reincarnation. While trying to understand the reincarnation process one cannot avoid this term.

Sanskrit word “karma” literally means “action, activity, work”, and because other languages again lack any synonym exactly explaining its meaning, it is not recommended to translate it.

In West this term was first used by Russian theosophist Helena P. Blavatsky (1831-1891). Her definition:

“Karma is the basic cosmic law, …which in physical, mental and soul world connects cause with its effect. Because any cause, be it the greatest like the movement of cosmos, or the smallest like the movement of hand, necessarily has a corresponding effect, and because the same acts in a same way, karma is invisible and unknown law which wisely, righteously and and providentially connects every effects with corresponding cause and its originator.”

In his work “Manifestations of Karma” (1910) anthroposofist Rudolf Steiner defines karma in this way:

“…without limiting free will of man, the law of karma acts back on an entity, from which the cause came, like the law of action and reaction.”

These definitions intelligibly explain the core of Vedic term karma. Steiner’s comparing law of karma to the physical law of action and reaction (actio = reactio, third Newton’s law of classical mechanics, 1687) is very pertinent although this law represents only a little aspect of much higher and subtler law of karma. Pertinent is also the maxim that karmic law of cause and effect acts especially on an individual level and leaves a space for the free will of a doer. This is what usually forget different critics of Eastern philosophies who understand karma as a mechanical predestination forcing a man to passively await what the future will bring (nihilism).

Already before Steiner and Newton’s discovery people knew sayings showing a certain understanding of regularity of action and reaction. Also a biblical quote “A man reaps what he sows” (Galatským 6:7) became a folk saying.

2. Free will and fate

According to Vedic philosophy every living being transmigrating in material world from one body to another, is given a free will to act according to its desires, ideas and thoughts.

When Shri Krishna narrated Bhagavad-gita to Arjuna, in one of the last verses (18.63) He said:

“Thus I have explained to you knowledge still more confidential. Deliberate on this fully, and then do what you wish to do.”

Vedic scriptures say that desire is a father of thought and thought is a father of action. Desire originally comes from the soul, thought from the mind (subtle body) and actions from working sense organs of gross body.

Living being has due to free will a certain, although limited field of activity. Vedic philosophy teaches that free will and predestination or fate are parallel to each other. By our present actions, performed out of our free will, we create our future karmic reactions. At the same time we reap reaction of our previous actions. Fate is not, therefore, any punishment from above striking on innocent ones (and which God does not want to or cannot stop).

Law of karma is very strict because it must assure fulfillment of desires of all living beings in the whole material world in such a way that they do not contradict but complement themselves and that even one injustice does not go unpunished. American Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) describes it in this way (Lectures and Biographical Sketches, 1868):

“If you love people and serve them, you will be rewarded. Hidden rewards continue to reinstate balance of divine justice. This law cannot be changed. All tyrants, owners and monopolists of this world try in vain to disrupt this balance. Equator still keeps its place and people as well as insects, sun and planets must obey it or be destroyed by backlash reaction.”

Universe is ruled by strict and generally operative laws - like rules of a great game of life - which coordinate desires and mutual relationships among individual living beings. Thus each of them gets exactly as much as it deserves - neither more, nor less.

According to Bhagavad-gita (2.70) the continuous stream of desires coming from the mind of each living being is like innumerable rivers which all enter one vast ocean. In this way originates endlessly complex, multidimensional web of actions and reaction which a man cannot understand. Here is apparent the influence of invisible hand of God who in His aspect of omnipresent Supersoul (paramatma) is accompanying all individual soul during their transmigration through various bodily forms. Bhagavad-gita (13.23) describes this aspect of God:

“Yet in this body there is another, a transcendental enjoyer, who is the Lord, the supreme proprietor, who exists as the overseer and permitter, and who is known as the Supersoul.”

Function of Supersoul is therefore to record innumerable desires of each living being and arrange for their fulfillment as well as observe activities of living beings and grant them corresponding reactions. This directing hand of God is called a law of karma.

3. Karma from the action point of view

Vedic scriptures contain exact information which actions we have to perform if we wish to achieve certain results (reactions). For example it is said: if you want to be rich, you have to act in this way, if you want to be famous, do this, if you want to live a satisfactory family life, do that etc.

If someone is in this life very successful, wealthy, educated, influential or beautiful, we can conclude from it that he must have been in his previous life magnanimous, diligent, and pious and now only reaps results of his previous deeds.

But what he will do with these assets in present life is another question - it depends on his free will. Therefore we see that not every wealthy and powerful person behaves properly.

Same principle is valid for unwanted things. Vedic scriptures can advise us: if you do not want to be sick or bankrupt, you must not do this or that. If we act according to these instructions, we will surely reach desired result in this or some of our future lives. Miscellaneous reactions may come either sooner or later - some immediately and others only after several lives.

4. Karma from the reaction point of view

While looking from the other side we have to admit that whatever happens to us in this life is nothing else than reaction to to our activity in this or some of previous lives. It is not therefore, a matter of blind chance but only a result of our deeds we decided to perform out of our free will.

Therefore it sometimes happens that people who live very pious and proper life are still exposed to all kinds of sufferings. From this one can conclude that in past they had to act improperly. Usually they learn from this and decide to live properly in their present life. Also one whose life is full of success reaps the fruit of his deeds.

Materialistic life and a chain of actions and reactions are inseparable. It is like a long movie of actions and reactions and the length of one life is like its several fields. When a child is born, his present body can be understood as a beginning of another series of actions and the death of an old man as its end. From this it is clear why someone, due to different reactions, is born in rich family and someone else in poor family although they were born at the same time in the same place and under same circumstances. Who carries along with him pious reactions (good karma) will get a chance to be born in rich or pious family and who is burdened by impious reactions (bad karma) will be born in low class and poor family.

5. Four phases of karma

“Plant a thought and you will reap a deed, plant a deed and you will reap a habit, plant a habit and you will reap a character, plant a character and you will reap a fate.” (Indian proverb)

Vedic philosophy (Padma Purana) explains that karmic reaction are manifested in four different phases compared to the phases of a plants’ growth:

1. bija (seed) Our wishes and intentions already exist in subtle form and only later they will manifest in activities. Thus to avoid unpleasant karmic reactions (suffering) we must pay attention to our unspoken material desires before the seeds of actions did not begin to sprout.

2. kuta-stha (sprouting) Reactions manifesting after a decision to perform a deed. They are material desires which already began to sprout.

3. phalonmukha (fructifying) Reactions already bearing fruits (phala). As soon as we perform a material actions - good or bad - it is only a question of time before they manifest reactions (fruit) in the form of happiness or distress.

4. prarabdha (harvest) Reactions already fulfilled at our birth: family (defining our socio-economic situation, nationality, race), physical and psychic dispositions etc.

Previous three phases are also in Sanskrit given a summary term aprarabdha or reactions not yet fully manifested, potential happiness and suffering. Fourth phase, prarabdha-karma, is what is generally called “karma”.

Upanisads describe these categories of karma:

1. sancita (stored)
1.1. anarabdha (not yet manifested) = aprarabdha
1.2. prarabdha (already manifested)
2. kriyamana (newly created)

6. Three kinds of karma

Bhagavad-gita (4.17-18) says: “The intricacies of action are very hard to understand. Therefore one should know properly what action is, what forbidden action is, and what inaction is. One who sees inaction in action, and action in inaction, is intelligent among men, and he is in the transcendental position, although engaged in all sorts of activities.”

These verses describe three kinds of karma. Here ‘karma’ does not denote reaction but action, activity.

1. karma Activities in harmony with higher laws of nature (dharma), which are also described in Vedic scriptures. This positive action brings positive reactions in the form of happiness and enjoyment.

2. vikarma Activities forbidden by scriptures písma because they are in conflict with dharma. These negative actions bring corresponding reactions - distress and suffering.

Bad karma - a short movie from film.bullguard.com

3. akarma Activities of higher nature which are not subjected to material laws of nature and therefore are called “inactions”. They do not bring any reactions, neither positive nor negative, and thus they bring reincarnation to an end. This end will occur when our “karmic account” at the end of life is zero. This cannot be achieved, however, by parallel performing of karma and vikarma, as someone may think, because they are counted independently of each other.

The cause of problems is vikarma which is at present performed by huge number of people all over the world in great amounts, and which is a threat for the whole humankind because it affects it in the form of collective karma (summary of individual karmas). This is manifested as wars, epidemics, natural disasters etc.

Reality proves that we are missing knowledge of law of karma because despite all our good intentions and efforts to alleviate suffering there is more and more unhappiness, individual and collective, in this world. This knowledge is ultimately the only solution of current problems. One who realizes this will understand that the change must start with himself.

C. Dharma - cosmic ethics
So how do we know what is “proper” and what is “improper”? This knowledge is crucial for our free decision-making. If there is a law there must be available its written form so everyone can get acquainted with it. After all, it is said that ignorance of law is no excuse.

These rules are listed in scriptures, especially in so-called dharma-sastras (scriptures describing dharma). They are law-books precisely defining how every human being should act according to one’s social and spiritual position. Most famous among them is Manu-smriti or Manu’s Law-book. Passages on dharma are also contained in Mahabharata (and its most important part, the Bhagavad-gita), Ramayana, Bhagavata and other Puranas, Bible, Qur’an etc.

Term “dharma” comes from Sanskrit root “dhri” (maintain, sustain, preserve in work). Usually it is translated as ethical, moral and religious principles which, however, does not fully represent its meaning. Dharma is a law or order of the material world (that which maintains its harmonic function), virtue or righteous conduct. Still deeper explanation says that dharma is an inherent or inseparable quality or nature. There is an example of salt whose inseparable quality (dharma) is salty taste. The word dharma would be therefore possible to translate as “ultimate cause”. This term from Western philosophy expresses the reason for existence of an object. Ultimate cause - dharma - of a house is to provide shelter to people. Uninhabitable house represents adharma (opposite of dharma). Dharma defines the function of the law of karma and itself is established by God. As “pillars of dharma” are called four qualities described in Bhagavata Purana (1.17.24):

- mercy (refusal of violence, meat-eating etc.)
- renunciation/sense control (refusal of intoxicants)
- truthfulness (refusal of gambling and speculations)
- purity (refusal of sex forbidden in scriptures)

It is therefore already established which human activities are good and bring positive reactions and which are bad and bring negative reactions in the form of suffering. This value system is universally valid and does not depend on opinions of individual living beings. I may think that what I do is good and also be able to justify it intellectually and thus impress others. If, however, my activity is not in accordance with universal definition of goodness, I will still reap a negative reaction.

Freedom of thinking and acting so propagated nowadays is sometimes misunderstood as a chance to do whatever we like. Yes, we have a free will, but at the same time we are responsible for our activity. Nothing can be further from reality that an idea that violation of dharma is unpunished. Contemporary state of the world should warn us not to put an economic benefit (artha) before dharma. It is this desire for sense enjoyment (symbolized by money) which is the most frequent cause of dharma violation.

D. Sanatana-dharma: the higher aspect of dharma
Dharma defines the way of life to suffer the least in this world. But the four basic kinds of suffering - birth, disease, old age and death - we cannot avoid here because they are present in the whole material world. It can be seen as a penitentiary institution with various corrective groups with better or worse standard of life. To get from the third group into the first can be considered as a certain advancement but we are still imprisoned. Although there is a small group of prisoners who like to stay in jail, vast majority of people desires freedom. Those who wish to be completely free from all suffering are informed by Vedic scriptures about even higher level called para-dharma (superior dharma) or sanatana-dharma (eternal dharma). Activity on this level is akarma, or free from any reactions. It is bhakti, devotional service to the Supreme Lord which is described in detail in Bhagavad-gita, Bhagavata Purana (Srimad Bhagavatam) and other confidential scriptures. Pleasant study!

“Man should serve to Lord Krishna with devotion without any desire for material benefit in this or next life. This will bring him liberation from the shackles of karma.” (Gopala-tapani Upanisad 1.14)